Herbs and Spices of the Scriptures
[These are notes I prepared as part of the Community Herbalist course I am taking. We students were instructed to complete an intensive study of Biblical references to herbs (broadly defined). I found the research so fascinating! I hope that you too will enjoy learning about the herbs and spices you might encounter in your Bible-reading. (The accompanying photographs are of various herbs grown in our garden over the years. Above is a large pot brimming over with aromatic oregano.)]
Aloes. Aquilaria Malaccensis.
The aloes mentioned in the Scriptures (Heb. ahalim, “trees of lign”) is not the Aloe vera with which many of us are familiar, but a tropical evergreen tree whose resinous heartwood (called agarwood) is highly prized as a perfume and incense. The Psalmist sings of Messiah, “...God hath anointed thee with the oil of gladness above thy fellows. All thy garments smell of myrrh, and aloes, and cassia, out of the ivory palaces, whereby they have made thee glad.” Psalm 45:7-8. [See also Hebrews 1:8-9] The production of this precious resin is, interestingly, an immune response to a parasitical fungal attack (phialophora parasitica) common to the Aquilaria species. Because it may be as long as 100 years before the harvest of valuable natural agarwood, it is fabulously expensive and associated with wealth and royalty. A common, inferior product is produced by wounding the Aquilaria tree to hasten the fungal infection.
The aloes tree can reach an impressive height of 130 feet. The prophet Baalam, commissioned by Balak to curse the Israelites, instead blessed them, comparing them to the luxurious growth of the aloe (Heb. lignaloes). “As the valleys are they spread forth, as garden’s by the river’s side, as the trees of the lign aloes which the LORD hath planted, and as cedar trees beside the waters.” Numbers 24:6
Aloes, with its warm and sensual fragrance, is potently aphrodisiac. The Scriptures twice mention it in an erotic setting. [Proverbs 7:17, Songs of Solomon 4:12-14] It was also used by the Egyptians in their famed embalming, a custom adopted by the Hebrews during their sojourn in Egypt. After Jesus’ death, Nicodemus brought a mixture of myrrh and aloes weighing a hundred pounds, to embalm Jesus’ body before burial. [John 19:39-40] The value of Nicodemus’ gift was and remains enormous; the Greek historian Heredotus states that aloes wood was at one time worth its weight in gold.
Modern Application: The warm, resinous fragrance of aloes, in the form of agarwood and oudh oil, has only recently been introduced to the West. The resin is primarily prized as an aphrodisiac perfume, though there is some recognition of antimicrobial properties.
Balm of Gilead. Commiphora gileadensis.
In the heat of summer, a sweet-smelling, pale gum exudes spontaneously from the desert balsam shrub Commiphora gileadensis. This “balm” (Heb. tzari, tsori, sori) was a valued trading commodity in Biblical times. [Genesis 37:25, 43:11, Ezekial 27:17] Three references in the book of Jeremiah each indicate that balm, especially that of Gilead, was highly regarded for use in healing wounds. The prophet affects surprise that, despite the very balm of Gilead, the hurts of Israel remain unhealed. “Is there no balm in Gilead; is there no physician there? why then is not the health of the daughter of my people recovered?” Jeremiah 8:22. The truth was that the wounds of Zion, Babylon [46:11], and Egypt [5:18] were deeply spiritual, and required the ministry of the Great Physician. Hence, the phrase “balm of Gilead” has been used as a metaphor for the Messiah.
Modern Application: Cammiphora gileadensis is rarely used medicinally today, though other balsams continue to be highly regarded for their healing properties.
Camphire. Lawsonia inermis.
The camphire (Heb. kopher) mentioned in the Scriptures is widely considered to be henna. King Solomon compared his beloved to a “cluster of camphire in the vineyards of En-Gedi” where it flourished and still does today. [Songs of Solomon 1:14] Camphire is listed among the “chief spices” of his bride. [Songs of Solomon 4:12-13] The clusters of cream-colored flowers are highly fragrant, and were used as perfume. A paste of ground henna was used to dye the hair, skin, and fingernails.
Modern Application: Henna remains a popular natural hair and skin dye; elaborate henna tattoos are traditionally used to embellish Indian brides. Henna perfume, described as sweet, clean and feminine, is experiencing a resurgence in popularity. Henna is anti-fungal and repels insects and mildew.
vv I love the deeply textured leaves of spearmint. A fresh leaf picked and chewed during an inspection of the garden is a sweet and refreshing treat.
Cinnamon. Cinnamomum verum.
Cinnamon (Heb. kinnamon) was a precious spice, the aromatic inner bark of the tree shoots. It was an ingredient in the holy anointing oil. [Exodus 30:22-33] It has two references in the Scriptures as an aphrodisiac perfume. King Solomon describes his bride on their wedding night as an “inclosed garden” stored with “all the chief spices,” including cinnamon. [Songs of Solomon 4:12-16] The adulterous woman against whom Solomon warns his son, seduces a simple youth with descriptions of a luxurious bed perfumed with “myrrh, aloes, and cinnamon.” [Proverbs 7:17] The last Scriptural reference to cinnamon is in a list in Revelations of “all the things which were dainty and goodly” in Babylon, a city that would be destroyed by the righteous wrath of Jehovah. [Revelations 18:12-14]
Modern Application: Cinnamon is best known today as the culinary spice that gives pumpkin pie, spice cake, cider and other popular treats their distinctive, warm flavor. Cinnamon is known to have antiseptic, astringent, anti-inflammatory and stimulant properties. It is used for pain relief and as a digestive aid. Cinnamon is being investigated for its possible ability to lower high blood pressure.
Cummin. Cuminum cyminum.
Cummin (Heb. cammon), a native of the Middle East, is cultivated for the bristly, oblong fruits used as flavoring and medicine. We learn in Isaiah 28 that it is “the Lord Almighty, wonderful in counsel and magnificent in wisdom” that instructs the farmer how to plant and prepare the cummin. [Isaiah 28: 23-29] Likewise does the Lord show wisdom and care in his dealings with his people. Cummin is mentioned by Jesus in Matthew 23:23 as part of the spice tithe paid by the Pharisees as an exaggerated observance of the law which required as a temple tithe a portion of all cash crops. Jesus condemned the hypocritical Pharisees for laying stress on trifling externals while neglecting the fundamentals of their faith: “You pass over judgment to man and love of God.”
Modern Application: Because of its bitter taste, cummin is rarely used medicinally except in veterinary practice. It has stimulant, antispasmodic and carminative properties.
Frankincense. Boswellia sacra and thurifera.
Frankincense [Heb. levonah, “white”] is a fragrant resin tapped from a straggly shrub so hardy that it has been known to grow directly out of solid rock. When the bark of this shrub is slashed, a light-colored resin exudes and hardens into aromatic tears. This costly resin is Biblically associated with divinity and the priesthood.
Frankincense was an ingredient of the holy perfume devised by God for use “before the testimony in the tabernacle of the congregation, where I will meet with you.” [Exodus 30:34-38] It was also an element of the meat (food) offering ordained by God; frankincense was burnt on the altar with fine flour, olive oil, salt and green ears of corn, yielding “a sweet savour” as a memorial “unto the LORD.” [Leviticus 2, 6:14-17] Frankincense was also an element of the shewbread to be displayed in the tabernacle at all times as an offering to God. [Leviticus 24:5-8] Frankincense was specifically forbidden for use in sin offerings [Leviticus 5:11] or jealousy offerings [Numbers 5:15].
When the temple was built in Jerusalem, a “great chamber” was dedicated to the frankincense and other elements of the meat offering; certain of the Levites were given charge over these. [First Chronicles 9:29] We are told in the book of Nehemiah an interesting story about this chamber. After Nehemiah rebuilt the walls of Jerusalem and reformed the Jewish community, he left for twelve years and returned to find the people backslidden. Eliashib the priest had allied himself with the wicked Ammonite Tobiah, an enemy of Israel, and had prepared for Tobiah a personal chamber in the very temple, in the room where the frankincense had been kept. When Nehemiah arrived in Jerusalem and learned of this outrage, he immediately “cast forth all the household stuff of Tobiah out of the chamber,” had the chamber cleansed, and brought again the frankincense with the other elements of the meat offering. [Nehemiah 13:4-9]
Frankincense was used as perfume in Biblical times. Solomon mentions it several times in his songs. [Songs of Solomon 3:6, 4:6, 4:14] Its scent, which is said to represent life, is balsamic, spicy and sweet, with hints of lemon.
Frankincense was presented to the child Jesus by the wise men from the East. [Matthew 2:11] The gift was symbolic of Christ’s divinity and his ministry as the Great High Priest of his people.
Frankincense is listed among “all the things which were dainty and goodly” in Babylon, a city that would be destroyed by the righteous wrath of Jehovah. [Revelations 18:12-14]
Modern Application: Frankincense resin is edible and has been long used medicinally for digestion, healthy skin, and arthritis. Frankincense is chewed to sweeten the breath, and used to mask body odors. Frankincense is being investigated as treatment for chronic inflammatory diseases.
vv Sweetly scented chamomile flowers make a delicious and soothing tea, a popular bedtime ritual.
Hyssop. Hyssopus officianalis.
King Solomon, the world’s wisest man and a learned naturalist, “spake of trees, from the cedar tree that is in Lebanon even unto the hyssop that springeth out of the wall…” I Kings 4:33. The hyssop (Heb. ezov) is a hardy evergreen that grows prolifically in the dry, rocky soil of the Mediterranean. It produces dark green, lance-like leaves and whorls of fragrant blue, pink, or white flowers. Their pungent aroma has been described as being like that of mint and camphor.
Hyssop, a powerful antiseptic, had long been used by the Israelite priests in the cleansing rituals of the tabernacle. [Hebrews 9:19-22] It was also used in the cleansing rituals of the persons, houses, and belongings of those who had contracted “all manner of plague of leprosy, and scall.1” [Leviticus 14, Numbers 19] “And a clean person shall take hyssop, and dip it in the water, and sprinkle it upon the tent, and upon all the vessels, and upon the persons that were there, and upon him that touched a bone, or one slain, or one dead, or a grave.” Numbers 19:18.
Hyssop was used as a symbol and metaphor for the spiritual purging and cleansing accomplished by God’s Spirit in the lives of his children. It was used in the burnt offering for the purification of sins. [Numbers 19:1-6] David declared, “Purge me with hyssop, and I shall be clean: wash me, and I shall be whiter than snow.” Psalm 51:7.
A bunch of hyssop was used for dipping and applying the blood of the lamb to the doorposts—protection against the Angel of Death that was to pass through Egypt that night. “And ye shall take a bunch of hyssop, and dip it in the blood that is in the bason, and strike the lintel and the two side posts with the blood that is in the bason…” Exodus 12:22. This may have been Syrian hyssop (Origanum syriacum); the hairs of its stems are said to prevent the coagulation of blood.
God providentially orchestrated that Jesus Christ, in the final moments of his earthly life, be given hyssop, connecting him to the Passover lamb, the sacrificial and cleansing ceremonies, and David’s prayer to be purified from his sins. “Now there was set a vessel full of vinegar: and they filled a spunge with vinegar, and put it upon hyssop, and put it to his mouth.” John 19:29.
Modern Application: Hyssop is an antiseptic, useful for treating cold sores and genital herpes. It is also an expectorant and cough reliever, cleansing the air passages.
Mandrakes. Mandragora officinarum.
Because the large roots of the mandrake (Heb. dudaim, “love plant”) were thought to resemble the reproductive organs, they were considered an aphrodisiac and an aid to fertility. In Genesis 30:14-16 we witness a contest between Leah and Rachel, sisters married to the same man, to bear children. Rachel, who was barren, bargained with Leah for the mandrakes Leah’s son had brought home. Ironically, it is Leah who conceived. Rachel’s superstitious belief in the mandrakes was not rewarded, and she did not conceive until the time appointed to her by God.
Solomon mentions the fragrance of mandrakes in the early morning. [Songs of Solomon 7:13] The scent of its fleshy orange berries is heavily narcotic, and sniffed to induce sleep. The powerful aroma has been compared to apples, though most modern Westerners find it unpleasant and even fetid.
Modern Application: Modern scientific studies have confirmed the mandrake’s aphrodisiac and sedative effects. All parts of the plant, however, are considered highly toxic because of their hallucinogenic effects.
Mint. Lamiaceae longifolia.
Two varieties of wild mint (Gk. heduosmon, “having a sweet smell”), particularly horsemint, flourished in Syria and Palestine; it was considered one of the lesser herbs. Jesus mentioned it as an element of the spice tithe, which the hypocritical scribes and Pharisees faithfully observed while omitting “the weightier matters of the Law.” [Matthew 23:23, Luke 11:42] The lanceolate, aromatic leaves were used both for medicine and for seasoning. It may have been one of the bitter herbs eaten with the Passover lamb.
Modern Application: Mint is a peerless digestive aid, as well as a popular expectorant and relaxant. A mint tisane will help relieve a mild headache. Mint is applied to wounds and burns because of its germicidal and pain-killing abilities.
Mustard. Brassica nigra.
In the ideal conditions of the Holy Land, the tiny seed of the black mustard (Gk sinapi, “to sting”) can rapidly gain a height of over three feet, making it indeed “greater than all herbs.” [Mark 4:32] The dark, pungent seeds were used for medicine and flavoring. Mustard is featured in Jesus’ parable about the kingdom of Heaven. “Another parable he put forth unto them, saying, The kingdom of heaven is like to a grain of mustard seed, which a man took, and sowed in his field: Which indeed is least of all seeds: but when it is grown, it is the greatest among herbs, and becometh a tree, so that the birds of the air come and lodge in the branches thereof.” Matthew 13:31-32 [Also, Luke 13:18-19]. There has been a great dispute about the meaning of this verse, since the mustard, though a large herb, does not ever reach the dimensions of a true tree, nor can it support the roosting of birds. Palestinian farmers would have recognized this at once. Joel B. Green in his commentary on The Gospel of Luke believes that “Jesus seems deliberately to emphasize the notion of astonishing extravagance in his analogy.” The kingdom of heaven, though coming from such a small beginning as the birth of a baby, will experience a growth far surpassing human expectation, providing support and shelter for the nations.
After their failure to cast a demon from a child, the disciples came to Jesus and asked, “Why could not we cast him out?” Jesus rebuked them: “Because of your unbelief.” He told them that if they had faith like a mustard seed, they could command trees [Luke 17:5-6] and even mountains [Matthew 17:14-20] to move; nothing would be impossible for them. A “mustard seed” was a proverbial metaphor, popular among the rabbis, for “the smallest particle.” Jesus was challenging his disciples: “If you had the least bit of faith...”
Modern Application: Mustard seed and oil is still important as a medicine today, recognized as a stimulant, diuretic, and emetic. A plaster of mustard is prepared as a counter-irritant to relieve chest congestion. Mustard foot baths are recommended for an incipient cold.
vv Cilantro and bare feet love the rainy weather!
Myrrh. Commiphora abyssinica.
A pale, granular sap exudes from the Commiphora tree, filling ducts in the bark and hardening into dark, brittle masses. This aromatic myrrh (Heb. murr, maror, “bitter”) was a valuable trading commodity in Biblical times [Genesis 37:27, 43:11], used in incense, perfume, medicine, and embalming ointment. It was a primary ingredient of the holy anointing oil. [Exodus 30:23] It is also listed among the spices of the “oil of gladness” with which Jehovah anointed the righteous sons of Korah. [Psalm 45:7-8]
King Solomon mentioned this aphrodisiac spice seven times, using phrases such as “go to the mountain of myrrh” and “gathered my myrrh with my spice” to describe his wedding night. [Songs of Solomon 4:6, 5:1; also 1:13, 4:12-14, 5:5, 5:13] Before being presented to King Ahasuerus, Esther and the other virgins were given a six-months treatment of oil of myrrh as part of an elaborately luxurious cosmetic treatment. [Esther 2:12]
Myrrh appears at three pivotal junctures in the earthly life of Jesus Christ. It was one of the three gifts presented to the child Jesus by the wise men from the east.2 [Matthew 2:11] Jesus refused an offer of “wine mingled with myrrh3” before his crucifixion. [Mark 15:23] (Myrrh is an anodyne, producing an analgesic result by affecting opioid receptors in the brain.) After his death by crucifixion, the body of Jesus was embalmed with myrrh and aloes, a gift from Nicodemus. [John 19:39]
Modern Application: A tincture of myrrh is an excellent mouthwash for the treatment of periodontal disease, sore and bleeding gums, mouth sores, and fungal infections. Myrrh is used in liniments and healing salves for abrasions and other minor skin ailments. It is a tonic and astringent.
Soapwort. Saponaria officinalis.
In Biblical times, the ashes of soapwort (Heb. bor, borith, “that which cleanses”) were mixed with olive oil to serve as a soft soap for bathing. The saponins in the leaves and roots cause a lather like that of soap when in contact with water. The two Scriptural references to soapwort remind us that, though it can cleanse the outward body, spiritual cleansing requires the forgiveness of God for our iniquities. “For though thou wash thee with nitre,4 and take thee much soap, yet thine iniquity is marked before me, saith the Lord GOD.” Jeremiah 2:22. [Also, Job 9:30]
Modern Application: Soapwort is used today by museum conservators as a gentle detergent for cleaning delicate fabrics; it is also popular in natural shampoos. Soapwort officinalis, also known by the common names Bouncing Bet and Sweet William, is cultivated in gardens for its clusters of sweetly scented flowers. Medicinally, soapwort is recognized as an expectorant and a laxative, but the saponins have toxic potential, and great care should be taken when using soapwort internally.
Spikenard. Nardostachys jatamansi.
Spikenard (Heb. nerd) is one of the most precious spices mentioned in the Bible. The plant, which grows extensively in northern India, produces from one root many spikes bearing small pink blossoms. A perfumed oil with an earthy, musky scent is extracted from these spikes.
This costly aphrodisiac herb is mentioned twice in the Songs of Solomon. “While the king sitteth at his table my spikenard sendeth forth the smell thereof.” Songs of Solomon 1:12. Solomon lists spikenard twice among the precious fruits and spices in the garden that is his beloved. [4:13-14]
Christ Jesus was twice anointed with the oil of spikenard. This is of symbolic significance, since the costly oil was used primarily by kings and priests, and for anointing a body before burial. Six days before the passover, Mary, the sister of Lazarus, anointed Jesus’ feet with a pound of ointment of spikenard, worth three hundred denarrii, a year’s wages in that time. It must have been Mary’s most precious possession. “Then took Mary a pound of ointment of Spikenard, very costly, and anointed the feet of Jesus, and wiped his feet with her hair; and the house was filled with the odour of the ointment.” John 12:3. Matthew and Mark both document a second similar event occurring only two days before the Passover. [Matthew 26:6-13, Mark 14:3-9] An unnamed woman anointed Jesus’ head with ointment of spikenard poured from an alabaster box.
Modern Application: Although spikenard is mentioned in the Scriptures primarily as a cosmetic, it was also used medicinally at that time. It is anti-fungal and useful for rashes and skin allergies. It is also recognized for a balancing effect on the menstrual cycle. Its medicinal use is now obsolete, though its properties are similar to its relative valerian, still used today for its sedative and antispasmodic properties.
vv The feathery banners of dill weed smell like sweet carrots.
M o r e B i b l i c a l H e r b s a n d S p i c e s
Anise. (Gk. anethon, “flatulence”) Jesus mentions anise as part of the spice tithe. [Matthew 23:23] The word translated anise may refer either to true anise or to dill.
Calamus. (Heb. Kenehbosem, “reed of fragrance”) This tall reed-like grass is very sweet-smelling. An oil extracted from it was used in the holy anointing oil. [Exodus 30:23] King Solomon lists calamus among the “chief spices” of his bride. [Songs of Solomon 4:12-14] Dan and Javan brought calamus to the markets of Tyre. [Ezekiel 27:19]
Cassia. Cinnamomum aromaticum. The cassia tree (Heb. kiddah) is of the same family as cinnamon, and is valued for the aromatic quality of its bark, often used today as a substitute for true cinnamon. Cassia was an ingredient in the holy anointing oil. [Exodus 30:23-25] Dan and Javan brought cassia to the rich international markets of Tyre. [Ezekiel 27:19] Cassia (Heb. kesiah, “fragrant”) is also listed among the spices of the “oil of gladness” with which Jehovah anointed the righteous sons of Korah. [Psalm 45:7-8]
Coriander. Coriandum sativum. The small, round seed of coriander (Heb. gad) is mentioned twice to describe the appearance of the miraculous manna. [Exodus 16:31, Numbers 11:7] This aromatic plant of the carrot family is a native of Israel, and used extensively in cooking.
Gall, Hemlock, Wormwood. There are two words in the Bible (Heb. rosh, Heb. la’anah, “accursed”) variously translated gall, hemlock, poison, venom and wormwood. The original words may not apply to a specific plant but broadly to anything that tastes bitter. The words are often used together and are most often used metaphorically to describe God’s judgment of the unrighteous. [Deuteronomy 29:18, 32:32; Job 20:16; Psalms 69:21; Proverbs 5:4; Jeremiah 9:15, 23:15; Lamentations 3:15, 19; Amos 6:12; Revelations 8:11]
Mallow. Atriplex patula. The word translated “mallow” in the Scriptures (Heb. malluah, “salty”) is generally agreed to be wild orache. This common weed grows in clay and heavy soil, and was eaten during times of desperate famine. [Job 30:3-4]
Rue. (Gk. peganon) This strongly scented evergreen herb was used as a disinfectant, medicine and as a temple tithe. [Luke 11:42]
Saffron. (Heb. karkom) This precious and sweet-smelling herb is mentioned in the Songs of Solomon. [4:14] The stigmas of the saffron flower are dried, pulverized and pressed into cakes used for dye, perfume, medicine and flavoring. Today it is the most expensive spice in the world.
vv Fresh basil has such a bold appearance and flavor.
E n d N o t e s
1. scall: n., skin sores
2.This gift of myrrh is often considered symbolic. Whereas the gift of gold symbolized the infant’s royalty, and frankincense his divinity and priesthood, myrrh, which was used to embalm bodies before burial, made a reference to his future death.
3.In the gospel of Matthew we read that it was “vinegar… mingled with gall.” [27:34] The word translated gall in the Bible was a broad term used to describe anything with a bitter taste. The Hebrew word for myrrh was murr, literally “bitter.”
4.nitre: n., washing soda
S e l e c t e d B i b l i o g r a p h y
The Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments [King James Version]
The New Strong’s Concordance of the Bible, James Strong
“Plants and Herbs,” The Bible Almanac, various contributors [Thomas Nelson Publishers]
Herbs of the Bible: 2000 Years of Plant Medicine, James A. Duke
A Fountain of Gardens: Plants and Herbs of the Bible, Wilma Paterson
The Healing Herbs, Michael Castleman
“Health,” Encyclopedia of Bible Truths for School Subjects, Dr. Ruth C. Haycock
A Modern Herbal, Maud Grieve
D i s c l a i m e r
This article is intended only for the purpose of education. It is not intended to diagnose or prescribe for any disease. If you are experiencing symptoms that concern you, please consult your healthcare provider.
Photographs and text © 2011.
COMMENT ON THIS POST BY SENDING AN EMAIL TO THE HANDMAIDEN.
MAGELA said...
I find this post very interesting. Thank you for sharing your knowledge about herbs and spices.
Friday, July 29, 2011 07:12 PM
HANDMAIDEN said...
You’re welcome, Magela. A study of herbs certainly provides countless opportunities for interest and discovery.
Saturday, July 30, 2011 01: 54 PM
Friday, July 29, 2011